Softskill Bahasa Inggris 2 Rangkuman Pertemuan 1-14

TUGAS SOFTSKILL BAHASA INGGRIS

RANGKUMAN MATERI PERTEMUAN 1- PERTEMUAN 14

DISUSUN OLEH

SUSI FATMAWATI

17216209

1EA01

UNIVERSITAS GUNADARMA
FAKULTAS EKONOMI
JURUSAN MANAJEMEN

WEEK 1 (Some, Any, Many, Much, A Lot Of, and A Few)

Some and Any

Use of some and any

Some and any are used to state the quantity, amount of something. When using some or any, the exact number is not stated. Some and any are quantifiers.

Some and any can be used when:

1.      The exact number is not known.

2.      The exact number is not important or relevant.

3.        Some and any are used with countable and uncountable nouns.

Study the following tables:

Interrogative	Affirmative	Negative
Are there any tomatoes in the fridge?	Yes, there are some.	No, there aren't any.
Is there any orange juice?	Yes, there is some.	No, there isn't any.

Offering	Responding
Would you like some coffee?	Yes please I'd like some.

Making a request	Responding
Would you mind lending me some money?	Of course here you are.

The rules of some and many:

SOME:

Use some in positive (affirmative) sentences. Some is used for both countable and uncountable nouns.

Examples:

I have some friends.(friends is countable)
I'd like some water. (water is uncountable)

ANY:

Use any for countable and uncountable nouns in:

1.      interrogative sentences. 
Examples: 
Have you got any cheese? (cheese is uncountable)
Have you got any friends? (friends is countable)

2.      negative sentences.
Example:
He hasn't got any cheese.
He hasn't got any friends in Chicago.

EXCEPTION:

Use some in questions when offering or requesting something.
Example:

·         Would you like some bread? (offer)

·         Can I have some water, please? (request)

Something, anything, somewhere, anywhere, someone ,anyone:

The same rules are true for something and anything, someone and anyone, and somewhere and anywhere.

Policeman:	Is there anyone at home?
Criminal:	Yes there is someone there. My friend!
Policeman:	Is there anything in your pocket?
Criminal:	Yes there is something. A gun!
Policeman:	Did you go anywhere recently?
Criminal:	Yes I went somewhere. I went to the old man's house to steal his money.

Much, many, a lot, and a few

Much, many, a lot:

"Much", "many", and "a lot of" indicate a large quantity of something, for example "I have a lot of friends " means I have a large quantity of friends.

Much, many, and a lot are quantifiers.

Study the examples below:

How much money have you got?	I haven't got much money.
	I have got a lot.
	I have got a lot of money.
How many students are in the classroom?	There aren't many.
	There are a lot.
	There are a lot of/lots of students.

In the interrogative forms we use:

• much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)
  Example:
  How much money/bread/water...is there?
• many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
  Example:
  
  

In the negative forms we use:

• much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)
  Example:
  I haven't got much money/bread/water...
• many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
  Example:
  There aren't many students/teachers/desks...

In the affirmative forms:

In spoken English and informal writing we tend to use:

·         a lot, a lot of, lots of with countable and uncountable nouns. 
Example:
"How many students are there in the classroom?" 
"There are a lot."
"How many students are there in the classroom?"
"There are a lot of / lots of students"..

In formal written English:

·         It is also possible (and preferable) to use many and much rather than a lot of, lots of and a lot in formal written English.
Example:
There are many students. 
Much time was spent on studying.

So if you're speaking or writing to friends (informal), use a lot, a lot of, lots of. But if you want to be more formal, perhaps it is preferable to use much and many.

Remember:

In affirmative sentences with so, as or too, we also use much / many.

Examples:
"Carla has so many friends."
"She has as many friends as Sue."
"Kevin has too much money."

Summary:

Interrogative	Negative	Affirmative
How many books are there?	There aren't many.	There are a lot.
		There are a lot of books.
		There are lots of books.
		There are many books (formal)
How much money have you got?	I haven't got much.	I've got a lot.
		I've got a lot of money.
		I've got lots of money.
		I have got much money (formal)

A little, a few, very little, very few

The expressions a little and a few mean some or enough.

The expressions (very) little and (very) few mean hardly any or not enough.

A little, a few, (very) little and (very) few are quantifiers

Study the following examples:

Examples	Meaning
I've got a little money. I'm going to the cinema.	some/enough
I've got a few friends. We meet everyday.
I've got (very) little money. I need to borrow some.	hardly any / not enough
I've got (very) few friends. I need to make new friends.

The rules:

Affirmative sentences:

A little, a few, (very) little and (very) few are generally used in affirmative statements, not negatives or questions.

Countable and uncountable nouns:

1.      A little and (very) little are used with uncountable nouns (money, bread, water...)

2.      A few and (very) few are used with countable nouns (friends, tables, teachers..)

Meaning:

1. A little and a few mean: some or enough.
   
   Example:
   
   "I have got a little money" = I have got some money. It's enough for me to do what I want.
   "I have got a few friends" = I have got some or enough friends. We meet every day.
2. (Very) little and (very) few mean; hardly any or not enough.
   
   Examples:

I have got (very) little money = I have got hardly any. I haven't got enough. I'll borrow some from my friend.
I have got (very) few friends = I have got hardly any. I haven't got enough. I need to make new friends.

WEEK 2 (Articles ; a, an, the and Zero Article)

Definite and indefinite articles

What is an article?

Basically, articles are either definite or indefinite. They combine to a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun.

·         The definite article is the.

·         The indefinite article is a / an.

The indefinite article a or an:

The article a / an is used when we don't specify the things or people we are talking about:

·         I met a friend.

·         I work in a factory in New York.

·         I borrowed a pencil from a passenger sitting next to me.

The indefinite article a is used before a consonant sound:

·         a dog.

·         a pilot

·         a teacher.

·         a university

NOTE: 
Although 'university' starts with the vowel 'u', it is not pronounced as such. It is pronounced as a consonant sound /ju:.niv3:.si.ti/

The indefinite article an is used before a vowel sound:

·         an engineer.

·         an elephant.

·         an athlete

The definite article the:

It's used when the speaker talks about a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know.

·         The car over there is fast.

·         The president of the United States is giving a speech tonight.

When we speak of something or someone for the first time we use a or an, the next time we repeat that object we use the definite article the.

·         I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms.

·         I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good.

No article:

1. Do not use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States".

·         He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier.

·         They live in Northern British Columbia.

·         They climbed Mount Everest.

2. we do not normally use an article with plurals and uncountable nouns to talk about things in general.:

·         He writes books.

·         She likes sweets.

·         Do you like jazz music?

·         She ate bread with butter in the morning.

Countable and uncountable nouns

Using English articles with countable and uncountable nouns may be confusing.

The can be used with uncountable nouns, or the article can be dropped entirely as mentioned above.

1.      "The two countries reached the peace after a long disastrous war" (some specific peace treaty) or "The two countries reached peace after a long disastrous war" (any peace).

2.      "He drank the water" (some specific water- for example, the water his wife brought him from the kitchen) or "He drank water." (any water)

It is unusual to use a/an for uncountable nouns. You can't say "I'd like a milk"

a/an can be used only with countable nouns.

1.      I'd like a piece of cake.

2.      I lent him a book.

3.      I drank a cup of tea.

WEEK 3 (Active and Passive Tensence in Present Form)

Sentences can be active or passive. Therefore, tenses also have "active forms" and "passive forms." You must learn to recognize the difference to successfully speak English.

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]Examples:

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]

Examples:

Active / Passive Overview

Tense	Active	Passive
Simple Present	Once a week, Tom cleans the house.	Once a week, the house is cleaned by Tom.
Present Continuous	Right now, Sarah is writing the letter.	Right now, the letter is being written by Sarah.
Simple Past	Sam repaired the car.	The car was repaired by Sam.
Past Continuous	The salesman was helping the customer when the thief came into the store.	The customer was being helped by the salesman when the thief came into the store.
Present Perfect	Many tourists have visited that castle.	That castle has been visited by many tourists.
Present Perfect Continuous	Recently, John has been doing the work.	Recently, the work has been being done by John.
Past Perfect	George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.	Many cars had been repaired by George before he received his mechanic's license.
Past Perfect Continuous	Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.	The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.
Simple Future will	Someone will finish the work by 5:00 PM.	The work will be finished by 5:00 PM.
Simple Future be going to	Sally is going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.	A beautiful dinner is going to be made by Sally tonight.
Future Continuous will	At 8:00 PM tonight, John will be washing the dishes.	At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes will be being washed by John.
Future Continuous be going to	At 8:00 PM tonight, John is going to be washing the dishes.	At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes are going to be being washedby John.
Future Perfect will	They will have completed the project before the deadline.	The project will have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect be going to	They are going to have completed the project before the deadline.	The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.
Future Perfect Continuous will	The famous artist will have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.	The mural will have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Future Perfect Continuous be going to	The famous artist is going to have been painting the mural for over six months by the time it is finished.	The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.
Used to	Jerry used to pay the bills.	The bills used to be paid by Jerry.
Would Always	My mother would always make the pies.	The pies would always be made by my mother.
Future in the Past Would	I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM.	I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM.
Future in the Past Was Going to	I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner tonight.	I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally tonight.

WEEK 4 (Simple Present, Present Continous, and Present Perfect Tense)

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

The simple present tense is one of several forms of present tense in English. It is used to describe habits, unchanging situations, general truths, and fixed arrangements. The simple present tense is simple to form. Just use the base form of the verb: (I take, you take, we take, they take) The 3rd person singular takes an -s at the end. (he takes, she takes)

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE IS USED:

• To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging situations, emotions and wishes:
  I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large city (general truth)
• To give instructions or directions:
  You walk for two hundred meters, then you turn left.
• To express fixed arrangements, present or future:
  Your exam starts at 09.00
• To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as soon as, until:
  He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.

Be careful! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now.
EXAMPLES

• For habits
  He drinks tea at breakfast.
  She only eats fish.
  They watch television regularly.
• For repeated actions or events
  We catch the bus every morning.
  It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
  They drive to Monaco every summer.
• For general truths
  Water freezes at zero degrees.
  The Earth revolves around the Sun.
  Her mother is Peruvian.

• For instructions or directions
  Open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
  You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.
• For fixed arrangements
  His mother arrives tomorrow.
  Our holiday starts on the 26th March
• With future constructions
  She'll see you before she leaves.
  We'll give it to her when she arrives.

FORMING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE: TO THINK

Affirmative	Interrogative	Negative
I think	Do I think?	I do not think
You think	Do you think?	You do not think
He thinks	Does he think?	He does not think
She thinks	Does she think?	She does not think
It thinks	Does it think?	It does not think
We think	Do we think?	We do not think.
They think	Do they think?	They do not think.

NOTES ON THE SIMPLE PRESENT, THIRD PERSON SINGULAR

• In the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:
  he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks.
• Negative and question forms use DOES (= the third person of the auxiliary 'DO') + the infinitive of the verb.
  He wants ice cream. Does he want strawberry? He does not want vanilla.
• Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:
  fly --> flies, cry --> cries
  Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y:
  play --> plays, pray --> prays
• Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:
  he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes

EXAMPLES

• He goes to school every morning.
• She understands English.
• It mixes the sand and the water.
• He tries very hard.
• She enjoys playing the piano.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS

FORMING THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

The present continuous of any verb is composed of two parts - the present tense of the verb to be + the present participle of the main verb.

(The form of the present participle is: base+ing, e.g. talking, playing, moving, smiling)

Affirmative
Subject	+ to be	+ base + ing
She	is	talking.
Negative
Subject	+ to be + not	+ base + ing
She	is not (isn't)	talking
Interrogative
to be	+ subject	+ base + ing
Is	she	talking?

EXAMPLES: TO GO, PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I am going	I am not going	Am I going?
You are going	You aren't going.	Are you going?
He, she, it is going	He, she, it isn't going	Is he, she, it going?
We are going	We aren't going	Are we going?
You are going	You aren't going	Are you going?
They are going	They aren't going	Are they going?

Note: alternative negative contractions: I'm not going, you're not going, he's not going etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

As with all tenses in English, the speaker's attitude is as important as the time of the action or event. When someone uses the present continuous, they are thinking about something that is unfinished or incomplete

THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS IS USED:

• to describe an action that is going on at this moment: You are using the Internet. You are studying English grammar.
• to describe an action that is going on during this period of time or a trend: Are you still working for the same company? More and more people are becoming vegetarian.
• to describe an action or event in the future, which has already been planned or prepared: We're going on holiday tomorrow. I'm meeting my boyfriend tonight. Are they visiting you next winter?
• to describe a temporary event or situation: He usually plays the drums, but he's playing bass guitar tonight. The weather forecast was good, but it's raining at the moment.
• with "always, forever, constantly", to describe and emphasise a continuing series of repeated actions: Harry and Sally are always arguing! You're constantly complaining about your mother-in-law!

BE CAREFUL! Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form

VERBS THAT ARE NOT USUALLY USED IN THE CONTINUOUS FORM

The verbs in the list below are normally used in the simple form because they refer to states, rather than actions or processes.

SENSES / PERCEPTION

• to feel*
• to hear
• to see*
• to smell
• to taste

OPINION

• to assume
• to believe
• to consider
• to doubt
• to feel (= to think)
• to find (= to consider)
• to suppose
• to think*

MENTAL STATES

• to forget
• to imagine
• to know
• to mean
• to notice
• to recognise
• to remember
• to understand

EMOTIONS / DESIRES

• to envy
• to fear
• to dislike
• to hate
• to hope
• to like
• to love
• to mind
• to prefer
• to regret
• to want
• to wish

MEASUREMENT

• to contain
• to cost
• to hold
• to measure
• to weigh

OTHERS

• to look (=resemble)
• to seem
• to be (in most cases)
• to have(when it means "to possess")*

EXCEPTIONS

Perception verbs (see, hear, feel, taste, smell) are often used with can: : I can see... These verbs may be used in the continuous form but with a different meaning

• This coat feels nice and warm. (your perception of the coat's qualities)
• John's feeling much better now (his health is improving)
• She has three dogs and a cat. (possession)
• She's having supper. (She's eating)
• I can see Anthony in the garden (perception)
• I'm seeing Anthony later (We are planning to meet)

PRESENT PERFECT
DEFINITION OF THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The present perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in the result than in the action itself.

BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but the meaning is probably NOT the same.

THE PRESENT PERFECT IS USED TO DESCRIBE

• An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
• An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. She has been to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)
• A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. We have visited Portugal several times.
• An action that was completed in the very recent past, expressed by 'just'. I have just finished my work.
• An action when the time is not important. He has read 'War and Peace'. (= the result of his reading is important)

Note: When we want to give or ask details about when, where, who, we use the simple past.

ACTIONS STARTED IN THE PAST AND CONTINUING IN THE PRESENT

• They haven't lived here for years.
• She has worked in the bank for five years.
• We have had the same car for ten years.
• Have you played the piano since you were a child?

WHEN THE TIME PERIOD REFERRED TO HAS NOT FINISHED

• I have worked hard this week.
• It has rained a lot this year.
• We haven't seen her today.

ACTIONS REPEATED IN AN UNSPECIFIED PERIOD BETWEEN THE PAST AND NOW.

• They have seen that film six times
• It has happened several times already.
• She has visited them frequently.
• We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

ACTIONS COMPLETED IN THE VERY RECENT PAST (+JUST)

• Have you just finished work?
• I have just eaten.
• We have just seen her.
• Has he just left?

WHEN THE PRECISE TIME OF THE ACTION IS NOT IMPORTANT OR NOT KNOWN

• Someone has eaten my soup!
• Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
• She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.

FORMING THE PRESENT PERFECT

The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main verb. The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked. For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the section called 'Verbs'.

Affirmative
Subject	to have	past participle
She	has	visited.
Negative
Subject	to have + not	past participle
She	has not (hasn't)	visited.
Interrogative
to have	subject	past participle
Has	she	visited?
Negative interrogative
to have + not	subject	past participle
Hasn't	she	visited?

TO WALK, PRESENT PERFECT

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
I have walked	I haven't walked	Have I walked?
You have walked	You haven't walked.	Have you walked?
He, she, it has walked	He, she, hasn't walked	Has he, she, it walked?
We have walked	We haven't walked	Have we walked?
You have walked	You haven't walked	Have you walked?
They have walked	They haven't walked	Have they walked?

WEEK 5 (Idenfinite Pronoun and Reflexive Pronoun)

Pronouns
Do you remember the eight parts of speech? Well, pronouns are one of the eight parts of speech. They are words that take the place of nouns. (Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas.) Pronouns can do all of the things that nouns can do.
There are many different types of pronouns. Let's focus on two types, shall we?

Indefinite Pronouns
These are pronouns that don't refer to a specific person or thing. The prefix "in" means "not." That will help you to remember that these pronouns are not definite.
Here are a couple of example sentences with indefinite pronouns.

Everyone laughed at the joke.

Both of the boys brought her flowers.
Notice that in both of those sentences, we're not sure which nouns the pronouns are replacing. They did not specify which nouns they replaced. They are not definite.
Examples of Indefinite Pronouns
Here is a list of indefinite pronouns: each, everything, either, everyone, someone, anything, both, many, several, few, all, most, none, one, some, much

Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves, and they always refer to the subject of the sentence.
Here are a couple of example sentences using reflexive pronouns:
The baby looked at herself in the mirror.
I bought myself a cupcake.

Notice that the pronouns herself and myself end in -self, and they both refer back to the subject of the sentence, baby and I.

Examples of Reflexive Pronouns
Here is a list of reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Tip: Don't Confuse Reflexive Pronouns with Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns are another type of pronoun that end in -self and -selves, but they are used differently than reflexive pronouns.
Remember that reflexive pronouns always refer to the subject, and they are a necessary part of the sentence. Intensive pronouns are only used to add emphasis to another noun or pronoun (not necessarily the subject), and they are not a necessary part of the sentence.
Here are two examples of intensive pronouns:
The trip itself was extremely fun, but some of the people on it were grouchy.
She asked me herself.
Do you see how we could take out both itself and herself from those sentences and they would still make sense? They aren't a necessary part of the sentence, so they are intensive pronouns.

WEEK 6 (Have Something Done and Causative Verb)

Causative verbs express an action which is caused to happen. In other words, when I have something done for me I cause it to happen. In other words, I do not actually do anything, but ask someone else to do it for me. This is the sense of causative verbs. Intermediate to advanced level English learners should study the causative verb as an alternative to the passive voice.

CAUSATIVE VERB EXAMPLES

Jack had his house painted brown and gray.
The mother made her son do extra chores because of his behavior. 
She had Tom write up a report for the end of the week.

The first sentence is similar in meaning to: Someone painted Jack's house. OR Jack's house was painted by someone. The second sentence indicates that the mother caused the boy to take an action. In the third, someone told someone to do something.

CAUSATIVE VERBS EXPLAINED

Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place. Causative verbs can be similar in meaning to passive verbs. Here are some examples for your comparison.

My hair was cut. (passive)
I had my hair cut. (causative)

In this example, the meaning is the same. Because it's difficult to cut your own hair, it's understood that someone else cut your hair.

The car was washed. (passive)
I got the car washed. (causative)

These two sentences have a slight difference in meaning. In the first, it's possible that the speaker washed the car. In the second, it's clear that the speaker paid someone to wash the car. 

Generally speaking, the passive voice is used to place emphasis on the action taken.

Causatives place the stress on the fact that someone causes something to happen.

There are three causative verbs in English: Make, Have and Get. Here are further explanations of each verb and the forms they can take. 

MAKE

'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires another person to do something.

Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb

Peter made her do her homework.
The teacher made the students stay after class.
The supervisor made the workers continue working in order to meet the deadline.

HAVE

'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them. This causative verb is often used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative verb 'have'.

Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb

This form indicates that someone causes another person to take an action. Have someone do something is often used to management and work relationships. 

They had John arrive early.
She had her children cook dinner for her.
I had Peter pick up the evening newspaper.

Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle

This form is used with services that are commonly paid for such as car washing, house painting, dog grooming, etc. 

I had my hair cut last Saturday.
She had the car washed at the weekend.
Mary had the dog groomed at the local pet store. 

Note: This form is similar in meaning to the passive.

GET

'Get' is used as a causative verb in a similar way as 'have' is used with the participle. This expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them.

The causative verb is often used in a more idiomatic manner than 'have'.

Subject + Get + Person + Past Participle

They got their house painted last week.
Tom got his car washed yesterday.
Alison got the painting appraised by an art dealer. 

This form is also used to difficult tasks we manage to complete. In this case, there is no causative meaning. 

I got the report finished last night.
She finally got her taxes done yesterday.
I got the lawn done before dinner. 

HAVE DONE = GET DONE

Have done and get done have the same meaning when used to refer to paid services in the past.

I had my car washed. = I got my car washed. 
She had her carpet cleaned. = She got her carpet cleaned. 

WEEK 7 (Determiner : All, Each, Every, Few, and Little

General and specific determiners
Determiners are words which come at the beginning of the noun phrase.\
They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or general.

Determiners are either specific or general
Specific determiners:
The specific determiners are: the definite article: the, possessives: my, your, his, her, its; our, their, whose, demonstratives: this, that, these, thosE, interrogatives: which

We use a specific determiner when we believe the listener/reader knows exactly what we are referring to:

Can you pass me the salt please?
Look at those lovely flowers.
Thank you very much for your letter.
Whose coat is this?

General determiners:

The general determiners are:

·         a; an; any; another; other; what

When we are talking about things in general and the listener/reader does not know exactly what we are referring to, we can use an uncount noun or a plural noun with no determiner:

Milk is very good for you. (= uncount noun)
Health and education are very important. (= 2 uncount nouns)
Girls normally do better in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)

… or you can use a singular noun with the indefinite article a or an:

A woman was lifted to safety by a helicopter.
A man climbing nearby saw the accident.

We use the general determiner any with a singular noun or an uncount noun when we are talking about all of those people or things:

It’s very easy. Any child can do it. (= All children can do it)
With a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.
I like beef, lamb, pork - any meat.

We use the general determiner another to talk about an additional person or thing:

Would you like another glass of wine?

The plural form of another is other:

I spoke to John, Helen and a few other friends.

All - Every – Each

English Grammar
The difference between All, Every, and Each - Quick Explanation

All means the total number of people or things considered as a group.
Every means all members of a group considered individually.
Each means all members of a group considered individually though we think of them more one by one.

What is the difference between Each and Every?

Both Each and Every generally have the same meaning. They refer to all members of a group considered individually.Every is closer in meaning to All than Each is.

• Every book in the course must be read before the end of the semester.
• Each book in the course must be read before the end of the semester.

(= This book and that book and that book etc. of the group of books) We use each when we think of them more as one by one. There is a little less emphasis on the individual with Every when comparing it to Each.

However notice that every cannot be used when referring to two things and is not common with small numbers.

• Every (one) of my parents (incorrect)
• Each of my parents (correct)

We cannot use Each with the words Almost or Nearly. Here we use Every.

• Almost each car pollutes the atmosphere. (incorrect)
• Almost every car pollutes the atmosphere. (correct)

-- EVERY --

Every refers to all members of a group though considered individually. It can be used to talk about three or more people/things.

Every + singular noun

The noun that comes after Every is in singular form.

• I have visited every country in South America (we do NOT say: every countries)
• I can understand every word our teacher says. (we do NOT say: every words)

Note, when you use every + noun as a subject, it uses a singular verb (verb + s)

• Every day is a chance to learn something new.
• Every child needs love and care.
• Every house on the street looks the same.

Every + number + plural noun

Every can be followed by a plural noun when there is a number before that noun. This is common with periods of time or things at regular intervals.

• He gets his head shaved every three weeks.
• You need to take a break every two hours.

We can also use every without a number and a singular noun to refer to regular intervals:

• He plays football every Saturday.
• She goes to the gym every day.

-- EACH --

Each refers to all members of a group though we think of them more one by one (individually). Each can be used to talk about two or more people/things.

Each + singular countable noun

You use a singular (countable) noun after the word Each.

• Make sure you enjoy each moment in your life.
• They play the national anthem of each country before the game begins.
• Live each day as if it were your last.

Each + one

One can be used to replace the singular countable noun if it has already been mentioned.

• A: What do I have to do with these antique vases? B: You need to take each one out of the box very carefully. (each one = each vase)

Each of + determiner + plural noun

Each can be followed by a determiner (my, his, the, etc.) and a plural noun.

• I kiss each of my children before they go to bed at night.
• The teacher had a little kid holding on to each of her hands.
• Each of the guides has a different group to show around the museum.

Notice how after each of the verb is usually in singular form though when speaking informally, you will sometimes hear a plural verb used.

• Each of my students has a different assignment to complete. (correct use)
• Each of my students have a different assignment to complete. (informal use)

Each of + pronoun (you/us/them)

We can only use the pronouns you/us/them after each of.

• He gave each of us a small gift at the end of the course.
• You need to wash each of them before use.
• Each of you needs to complete the assignment individually.

Again the verb following each of + pronoun should be in the singular form.

Each as a pronoun

Each can be used by itself (without a noun) as a pronoun.

• When the students finished to course, each was given a certificate. (Each = each of the students)

Though it is more common to use each one instead of each by itself.

• …each one was given a certificate.

Noun/Pronoun + each

Each can be used after the noun (or pronoun) it describes.

• The parents gave their children some pocket money. To avoid problems, they each received the same amount.

Auxiliary Verb/To Be + each

Each can be used after an auxiliary verb or the verbs Are and Were.

• I have four books to sell and they are each worth around five dollars.
• They have each been told their responsibilities.

Object + each

Instead of going before/after the subject, each can appear after the object. 
This is common when the noun object refers to an amount, how many of something there is or when giving a price.

• My paintings are worth $100 each (= Each of my paintings are worth $100)
• I gave my children each an ice cream.

-- ALL --

All refers to the total number of people or things of a group. They are considered as a group and not individually. There are minimum three things in the group.

All + noun

We can use All with a plural noun to make a generalization about an entire group of something.

• All sharks are dangerous.
• All elephants are slow.

All + of + determiner + noun

The noun can be singular, plural or an uncountable noun. These nouns can also be replaced by pronouns.

• You need to read all of the book.
• All of the pages are yellow and old.
• All of the fish in the pond have died.
• You need to remove all of them before they start to smell bad.

Note that All of + singular noun is not common and Whole or Entire used instead of all of.

• You need to read the whole book (= all of the book)

We can also remove OF before the determiner + noun (but we must use OF before a pronoun)

• You need to read all the book.
• All the pages are yellow and old.

Pronoun + all                                

Sometimes you can place All after a pronoun to emphasize that every single one of that group is included.

• We all hope you get better soon.
• I hope you all have a great time.
• I have made us all some sandwiches.

Compare All vs. Each

All refers to the entire group as a whole. Each refers to the individual members of the group.

• I say goodbye to each student as they leave the room.

(= Goodbye John, goodbye Mary, goodbye Daniel… etc. until it has been said to ALL of the students individually… Yes, there is a lot of repetition)

• I say goodbye to all of the students as they leave the room.

(= Goodbye students … I just say goodbye once)

Compare All vs. Every

I simple way to remember is that All is with a plural noun + plural verb while Every is with a singular noun +singular verb. Every can also suggest “without exception”.

• All students receive a certificate.
• Every student receives a certificate.

We can use All with uncountable nouns (and not Every).

• I like all music (NOT every music)
• Place all luggage on the counter. (NOT every luggage)

Summary Chart

The expressions a little and a few mean some.

§  If a noun is in singular, we use a little

Example:

a little money

§  If a noun is in plural, we use a few

Example:

a few friends

Countable / Uncountable Nouns

In connection with a little / a few people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take a few.

Example:

4 friends – a few friends

Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take a little.

Example:

3 money – a little money

Note: Of course you can count money – but then you would name the currency and say that you have got 3 euro (but not „3 money“).

A Little / A few or Little / Few

It's a difference if you use a little / a few or little / few. Without the article, the words have a limiting or negative meaning.

§  a little = some
little = hardly any

Example:

I need a little money. - I need some money.

I need little money. - I need hardly any money.

§  a few = some
few = hardly any

Example:

A few friends visited me. - Some friends visited me.

Few friends visited me. - Hardly any friends visited me.

Without the article, little / few sound rather formal. That's why we don't use them very often in everyday English. A negative sentence with much / many is more common here.

Example:

I need little money. = I do not need much money.

Few friends visited me. = Not many friends visited me.

 

WEEK 8 (Question Tags)

Question Tags

English Grammar Rules

Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.

They are mainly used in speech when we want to:

• confirm that something is true or not, or
• to encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.

Question tags are formed with the auxiliary or modal verb from the statement and the appropriate subject.

A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.

• Jack is from Spain, isn't he?
• Mary can speak English, can't she?

A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.

• They aren't funny, are they?
• He shouldn't say things like that, should he?

When the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple we form the question tag with do / does.

• You play the guitar, don't you?
• Alison likes tennis, doesn't she?

If the verb is in the past simple we use did.

• They went to the cinema, didn't they?
• She studied in New Zealand, didn't she?

When the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag needs to be positive

• He hardly ever speaks, does he?
• They rarely eat in restaurants, do they?

Question Tags Summary Charts

 

Exceptions

Some verbs / expressions have different question tags. For example:

I am - I am attractive, aren't I?

Positive imperative - Stop daydreaming, will / won't you?

Negative imperative - Don't stop singing, will you?

Let's - Let's go to the beach, shall we?

Have got (possession) - He has got a car, hasn't he?

There is / are - There aren't any spiders in the bedroom, are there?

This / that is - This is Paul's pen, isn't it?

Intonation

When we are sure of the answer and we are simply encouraging a response, the intonation in the question tag goes down:

• This is your car, isn't it?
  (Your voice goes down when you say isn't it.)

When we are not sure and want to check information, the intonation in the question tag goes up:

• He is from France, isn't he?
  (Your voice goes up when you say isn't he.)

 WEEK 9 (So and Such & Third Conditional )

So + Adjective

USE

"So" can be combined with adjectives to show extremes. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:
a. Music is so loud! I wish they would turn it down.
b. The meal was so good! It was worth the money.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show extremes which lead to certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• The music is so loud that I can't sleep.
• The music is so loud I can't sleep.

• The meal was so good that we decided to have dinner at the same restaurant again tonight.
• The meal was so good we decided to have dinner at the same restaurant again tonight.

So + Adverb

USE

"So" can be combined with adverbs to show extreme actions. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• She spoke so quickly! She sounded like an auctioneer.
• He paints so well! I am sure he is going to become a famous artist.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show extreme actions which lead to certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• She spoke so quickly that I couldn't understand her.
• She spoke so quickly I couldn't understand her.

• He paints so well that they offered him a scholarship at an art school in Paris.
• He paints so well they offered him a scholarship at an art school in Paris.

So + Many / Few + Plural Noun

USE

"So" can be combined with "many" or "few" plus a plural noun to show extremes in amount. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• I never knew you had so many brothers!
• She has so few friends! It's really quite sad.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show extremes in amount which lead to certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• I never knew you had so many brothers that you had to share a bedroom.
• I never knew you had so many brothers you had to share a bedroom.

• She has so few friends that she rarely gets out of the house.
• She has so few friends she rarely gets out of the house.

So + Much / Little + Non-countable Noun

USE

"So" can be combined with "much" or "little" plus a non-countable noun to show extremes in amount. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• Jake earns so much money! And he still has trouble paying the rent.
• They have so little food! We need to do something to help them.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show extremes in amount which lead to certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• Jake earns so much money that he has lost all sense of what a dollar is worth.
• Jake earns so much money he has lost all sense of what a dollar is worth.

• They have so little food that they are starving to death.
• They have so little food they are starving to death.

So + Much / Little / Often / Rarely

USE

"So" can be combined with words like "much," "little," "often," or "rarely" to describe how much or how often someone does an action. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• Earl drinks so much! It's not good for his health.
• My sister visits us so rarely! I really miss her.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show the results of extreme actions. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• Earl drinks so much that it is starting to interfere with his work.
• Earl drinks so much it is starting to interfere with his work.

• My sister visits us so rarely that my kids wouldn't even recognize her.
• My sister visits us so rarely my kids wouldn't even recognize her.

Such + Adjective + Noun

USE

"Such" can be combined with an adjective and a noun to show extremes. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• Don has such a big house! I think it's a little ridiculous.
• Shelly has such beautiful eyes! I have never seen that shade of blue before.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show extremes which lead to certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• Don has such a big house that I actually got lost on the way to the bathroom.
• Don has such a big house I actually got lost on the way to the bathroom.

• Shelly has such beautiful eyes that she got a job as a make-up model.
• Shelly has such beautiful eyes she got a job as a make-up model.

NOTE

Remember that without the noun you need to use "so."

Examples:

• such beautiful eyes that
• so beautiful that

Such + Judgemental Noun

USE

"Such" can also be combined with judgemental nouns for emphasis. This form is often used in exclamations.

Examples:

• He is such an idiot! He says the stupidest things.
• She is such a genius! We could never do this work without her.

USE with "That"

The above form can be combined with "that" to show certain results. The "that" is usually optional.

Examples:

• He is such an idiot that nobody would hire him.
• He is such an idiot nobody would hire him.

• She is such a genius that they immediately gave her a position at the university.
• She is such a genius they immediately gave her a position at the university.

Such + Noun (This type of...)

USE

"Such" can also mean "this type of..." or "that type of..."

Examples:

• The archeologist had never seen such writing before he discovered the tablet.
  this/that type of writing
• She usually doesn't receive such criticism.
  this/that kind of criticism
• Frank has never made such mistakes before.
  these/those kinds of mistakes

Third Conditional
Grammar is the way words are organized into sentences. It’s important to remember that not all English sentences follow grammar “rules.” However, there are sentence structures you can learn that make it easier for you to express your thoughts.
A conditional sentence is used in English to talk about a result that may happen IF a condition happens first.
The 3rd conditional sentence structure is also called the past unreal conditional or past hypothetical conditional. It is used to imagine a different past than the one that happened.

·         If I hadn’t eaten so much, I wouldn’t have gotten* so fat.
[*In American English, gotten is used at the past participle of got.]

The if clause is unreal. It did not happen. Did I eat a lot? Yes, I did. Am I fat? Yes, I am. However, what if the past was different? What if I hadn’t eaten so much? I am imagining the result if the past was different.

·         If I hadn’t eaten so much,

I’m imagining what would have happened if I hadn’t eaten so much. How would things be different if I hadn’t eaten so much? 

·         …I wouldn’t have gotten* so fat.

·         Am I fat now? Yes. I would not be fat now if hadn’t eaten so much in the past. If I ate well in the past, I would not be fat now.

The 3rd conditional form:

·         If + past perfect, would have + past participle

Example sentences:

·         If I hadn’t gone to the party, I would have never met my husband.

·         We would have gone out last night if we hadn’t been so tired.

·         If his brother hadn’t reminded him, Dan would have forgotten his wife’s birthday.

·         If she had seen the ice on the road, she would have slowed down and she wouldn’t have gotten in an accident.

·         NOTES:
The past perfect tense = had + past participle

·         In spoken English, subject + would AND subject + had are usually contracted:I’d, you’d, she’d, he’d, we’d, they’d 

Common uses of this sentence structure:

·         What would you have done if … ?

·         What would you have done if you hadn’t been accepted at any university?

·         What would you have done if we hadn’t been there to help?

·         What would you have done differently if you had known you would never speak to him again?

·         If I had known…

·         If I had known that you needed help, I would have come!

·         If we had known you were sick, we would have gone to visit you in the hospital.

·         We wouldn’t have driven all this way if we had known the museum was closed.

·         If I had known that you needed a ride to school, I would have driven you.

·         I really wanted to see that movie! If I had known you were going, I would have gone with you!

Expressing Regret
You can use this sentence structure to express regret about something in the past, and to wish the past had happened differently.

·         If we had known the movie was so awful, we wouldn’t have wasted our money on it.

·         If I had finished high school and gone to university, I would have gotten a better job.

Criticism
You can use this structure to criticize someone/something or point out mistakes:

·         If you hadn’t stayed out so late last night, you wouldn’t have slept in and been late for work!

·         It would have been quicker if we had taken a taxi to the park instead of walking. 

Other modal verbs can be used in the result clause:

·         might have + past participle = maybe

·         If I had known you would be at the party, I might have gone.

·         If I had known about his police record, I might not have dated him.

·         If he had finished high school, he might have had a better life.

·         If she had been wearing her seatbelt, she might have survived the car accident. 

could have + past participle = possibility or ability

·         I could have been a world-class swimmer if I had practiced more when I was younger.

·         If I had known you didn’t have a car, I could have driven you to the meeting.

·         If my parents hadn’t lent me money, I could never have affordeduniversity.

·         If you had told me the TV was broken, I could have fixed it for you! 

WEEK 11 ( Direct and Indirect Speech in Present )

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct and indirect speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's first define the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how to convert speech from direct to indirect or vice-versa.
You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:

1. by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)
2. by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

DIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous conversation.

EXAMPLES

• She says, "What time will you be home?"
• She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
• "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.

INDIRECT SPEECH

Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask', and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.

She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)

'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

'SAY' AND 'TELL'
Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:
He said that he was tired.
Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect object):
He told me that he was tired.
'TALK' AND 'SPEAK'
Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:
He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.
Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:
He talked (to us) about his parents.

Direct speech		Indirect speech
Present simple  She said, "It's cold."	›	.
Present continuous  She said, "I'm teaching English online."	›
Present perfect simple  She said, "I've been on the web since 1999."	›
Present perfect continuous  She said, "I've been teaching English for seven years."	›

You do not need to change the tense if the reporting verb is in the present, or if the original statement was about something that is still true, e.g.

• He says he has missed the train but he'll catch the next one.
• We explained that it is very difficult to find our house.

These modal verbs do not change in reported speech: might, could, would, should, ought to:

• We explained, "It could be difficult to find our house." = We explained that it could be difficult to find our house.
• She said, "I might bring a friend to the party." = She said that she might bring a friend to the party.

 WEEK 12 ( Direct and Indirect Speech in Past )

Direct speech		Indirect speech
	›	Past simple  She said it was cold.
	›	Past continuous  She said she was teaching English online.
	›	Past perfect simple She said she had been on the web since 1999.
	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching English for seven years.
Past simple  She said, "I taught online yesterday."	›	Past perfect  She said she had taught online yesterday.
Past continuous  She said, "I was teaching earlier."	›	Past perfect continuous  She said she had been teaching earlier.
Past perfect  She said, "The lesson had already started when he arrived."	›	Past perfect  NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had already started when he arrived.
Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes."	›	Past perfect continuous  NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes.

 
WEEK 13 ( Direct and Indirect Speech in Future)

WEEK 14 ( Direct and Indirect Speech in Introgative )

Direct-Indirect Speech - Simple Interrogative Sentences

For the purpose of Direct-Indirect Speech, Interrogative Sentences are divided into two types - (1) W-family Interrogative Sentences and (2) Simple Interrogative Sentences (Other than W-family Sentences).

Simple Interrogative Sentences
The basic rules of changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech described for simple sentences applies for all types of Sentences. There are certain changes in rules for each type of sentences.

Rule No. 1
In all Interrogative sentences if Reporting Verb is 'say/say to, says/says to, will say/will say to or said/said to', in Indirect Speech also it will be changed to 'ask, asks, will ask or asked'.

Rule No. 2
In all Simple Interrogative sentences, Comma (,) and Inverted Commas ("...") are removed and word 'If' or 'Whether' is used to join both the parts.

Rule No. 3
For converting Direct Speech to Indirect Speech of all Interrogative Sentences, the interrogative form of the sentence is changed to Assertive form and Question Mark (?) is replaced with Full Stop (.).

Rule No. 4
At the time of converting Direct Speech to Indirect Speech of all Interrogative Sentences 'Yes/No' Short Answer is also added with the Interrogative Sentences, answer is briefly described in place of simple 'Yes/No'. If answer is 'No', brief answer will be in Negative form and if it is 'Yes', the brief answer will be in Assertive form.

Examples of Simple Interrogative Sentences 

Direct		She says, "Am I looking gorgeous?"
Indirect		She asks whether she is looking gorgeous.
Direct		He said, "Am I not looking handsome?"
Indirect		He asked whether he was not looking handsome.
Direct		Madhur said to Bhavin, "Will you come early today from office?"
Indirect		Madhur asked Bhavin whether he would come early that day from office.
Direct		Avyan said to Neha, "Can you solve this puzzle?" "No", she said.
Indirect		Avyan asked Neha if she could solve that puzzle. She said, She couldn't or She replied in negative.
Direct		Suman said to Swati, "Do you know everything about him?" She said, "Yes".
Indirect		Suman asked Swati whether she knew everything about him. She said, she did or She replied in affirmative.

Direct		Biswas jee said to me, "Have you read the book on Swaami Vivekananda?"
Indirect		Biswas jee asked me whether I had read the book on Swaami Vivekananda.
Direct		She said to Heena, "Did I not telephone you in the morning?"
Indirect		She asked Heena whether she had not telephoned her in the morning.
Direct		GM said to me, "Is it fine if you are transferred to Agra?"
Indirect		GM asked me whether it was fine if I was transferred to Agra.
Direct		He said to Heena, "Are you serious about our marriage?"
Indirect		He asked Heena if she was serious about their marriage.
Direct		You said to Shalini, "Do you have trust in God?"
Indirect		You asked Shalini whether she had trust in God.